Conventions aren't rules: expert practitioners break them for deliberate effect, which is one of the rare occasions that we become aware of what the convention is.
Long shot (LS). Shot which shows all or most of a fairly large
subject (for example, a person) and usually much of the surroundings.
Extreme Long Shot (ELS) - see establishing shot: In this type of shot the
camera is at its furthest distance from the subject, emphasising the
background. Medium Long Shot (MLS): In the case of a standing actor, the
lower frame line cuts off his feet and ankles. Some documentaries with
social themes favour keeping people in the longer shots, keeping social
circumstances rather than the individual as the focus of attention.
Establishing shot. Opening shot or sequence, frequently an
exterior 'General View' as an Extreme Long Shot (ELS). Used to set the
scene.
Medium shots. Medium Shot or Mid-Shot (MS). In such a shot the
subject or actor and its setting occupy roughly equal areas in the frame.
In the case of the standing actor, the lower frame passes through the
waist. There is space for hand gestures to be seen. Medium Close Shot
(MCS): The setting can still be seen. The lower frame line passes through
the chest of the actor. Medium shots are frequently used for the tight
presentation of two actors (the two shot), or with dexterity three (the
three shot).
Close-up (CU). A picture which shows a fairly small part of the
scene, such as a character's face, in great detail so that it fills the
screen. It abstracts the subject from a context. MCU (Medium Close-Up):
head and shoulders. BCU (Big Close-Up): forehead to chin. Close-ups focus
attention on a person's feelings or reactions, and are sometimes used in
interviews to show people in a state of emotional excitement, grief or
joy. In interviews, the use of BCUs may emphasise the interviewee's
tension and suggest lying or guilt. BCUs are rarely used for important
public figures; MCUs are preferred, the camera providing a sense of
distance. Note that in western cultures the space within about 24 inches
(60 cm) is generally felt to be private space, and BCUs may be invasive.
Angle of shot. The direction and height from which the camera
takes the scene. The convention is that in 'factual' programmes subjects
should be shot from eye-level only. In a high angle the camera looks down
at a character, making the viewer feel more powerful than him or her, or
suggesting an air of detachment. A low angle shot places camera below the
character, exaggerating his or her importance. An overhead shot is one
made from a position directly above the action.
Viewpoint. The apparent distance and angle from which the camera
views and records the subject. Not to be confused with point-of-view shots
or subjective camera shots.
Point-of-view shot (POV). A shot made from a camera position
close to the line of sight of a performer who is to be watching the action
shown in the point-of-view shot.
Two-shot. A shot of two people together.
Selective focus. Rendering only part of the action field in
sharp focus through the use of a shallow depth of field. A shift of focus
from foreground to background or vice versa is called rack focus.
Soft focus. An effect in which the sharpness of an image, or
part of it, is reduced by the use of an optical device.
Wide-angle shot. A shot of a broad field of action taken with a
wide-angle lens.
Tilted shot. When the camera is tilted on its axis so that
normally vertical lines appear slanted to the left or right, ordinary
expectations are frustrated. Such shots are often used in mystery and
suspense films to create a sense of unease in the viewer.
Zoom. In zooming in the camera does not move; the lens is
focussed down from a long-shot to a close-up whilst the picture is still
being shown. The subject is magnified, and attention is concentrated on
details previously invisible as the shot tightens (contrast tracking). It
may be used to surprise the viewer. Zooming out reveals more of the scene
(perhaps where a character is, or to whom he or she is speaking) as the
shot widens. Zooming in rapidly brings not only the subject but also the
background hurtling towards the viewer, which can be disconcerting.
Zooming in and then out creates an ugly 'yo-yo' effect.
Following pan. The camera swivels (in the same base position) to
follow a moving subject. A space is left in front of the subject: the pan
'leads' rather than 'trails'. A pan usually begins and ends with a few
seconds of still picture to give greater impact. The speed of a pan across
a subject creates a particular mood as well as establishing the viewer's
relationship with the subject. 'Hosepiping' is continually panning across
from one person to another; it looks clumsy.
Surveying pan. The camera slowly searches the scene: may build
to a climax or anticlimax.
Tilt. A vertical movement of the camera - up or down- while the
camera mounting stays fixed.
Crab. The camera moves (crabs) right or left.
Tracking (dollying). Tracking involves the camera itself being
moved smoothly towards or away from the subject (contrast with zooming).
Tracking in (like zooming) draws the viewer into a closer, more intense
relationship with the subject; moving away tends to create emotional
distance. Tracking back tends to divert attention to the edges of the
screen. The speed of tracking may affect the viewer's mood. Rapid tracking
(especially tracking in) is exciting; tracking back relaxes interest. In a
dramatic narrative we may sometimes be drawn forward towards a subject
against our will. Camera movement parallel to a moving subject permits
speed without drawing attention to the camera itself.
Hand-held camera. A hand-held camera can produce a jerky,
bouncy, unsteady image which may create a sense of immediacy or chaos. Its
use is a form of subjective treatment.
Process shot. A shot made of action in front of a rear
projection screen having on it still or moving images as a background.
There is always a reason for a cut, and you should ask yourself what
the reason is. Less abrupt transitions are achieved with the fade,
dissolve, and wipe
Matched cut. In a 'matched cut' a familiar relationship between
the shots may make the change seem smooth:
*The cut is usually made on an action (for example, a person begins to
turn towards a door in one shot; the next shot, taken from the doorway,
catches him completing the turn). Because the viewer's eye is absorbed by
the action he is unlikely to notice the movement of the cut itself.
Jump cut. Abrupt switch from one scene to another which may be
used deliberately to make a dramatic point. Sometimes boldly used to begin
or end action. Alternatively, it may be result of poor pictorial
continuity, perhaps from deleting a section.
Motivated cut. Cut made just at the point where what has
occurred makes the viewer immediately want to see something which is not
currently visible (causing us, for instance, to accept compression of
time). A typical feature is the shot/reverse shot technique (cuts
coinciding with changes of speaker). Editing and camera work appear to be
determined by the action. It is intimately associated with the 'privileged
point of view' (see narrative style: objectivity).
Cutting rate. Frequent cuts may be used as deliberate
interruptions to shock, surprise or emphasize.
Cutting rhythm. A cutting rhythm may be progressively shortened
to increase tension. Cutting rhythm may create an exciting, lyrical or
staccato effect in the viewer.
Cross-cut. A cut from one line of action to another. Also
applied as an adjectuve to sequences which use such cuts.
Cutaway/cutaway shot (CA). A bridging, intercut shot between two
shots of the same subject. It represents a secondary activity occurring at
the same time as the main action. It may be preceded by a definite look or
glance out of frame by a participant, or it may show something of which
those in the preceding shot are unaware. (See narrative style: parallel
development) It may be used to avoid the technical ugliness of a 'jump
cut' where there would be uncomfortable jumps in time, place or viewpoint.
It is often used to shortcut the passing of time.
Reaction shot. Any shot, usually a cutaway, in which a
participant reacts to action which has just occurred.
Insert/insert shot. A bridging close-up shot inserted into the
larger context, offering an essential detail of the scene (or a reshooting
of the action with a different shot size or angle.)
Buffer shot (neutral shot). A bridging shot (normally taken with
a separate camera) to separate two shots which would have reversed the
continuity of direction.
Fade, dissolve (mix). Both fades and dissolves are gradual
transitions between shots. In a fade the picture gradually appears from
(fades in) or disappears to (fades out) a blank screen. A slow fade-in is
a quiet introduction to a scene; a slow fade-out is a peaceful ending.
Time lapses are often suggested by a slow fade-out and fade-in. A dissolve
(or mix) involves fading out one picture while fading up another on top of
it. The impression is of an image merging into and then becoming another.
A slow mix usually suggests differences in time and place. Defocus or
ripple dissolves are sometimes used to indicate flashbacks in time.
Superimpositions. Two of more images placed directly over each
other (e.g. and eye and a camera lens to create a visual metaphor).
Wipe. An optical effect marking a transition between two shots.
It appears to supplant an image by wiping it off the screen (as a line or
in some complex pattern, such as by appearing to turn a page). The wipe is
a technique which draws attention to itself and acts as a clear marker of
change.
Inset. An inset is a special visual effect whereby a reduced
shot is superimposed on the main shot. Often used to reveal a close-up
detail of the main shot.
Split screen. The division of the screen into parts which can
show the viewer several images at the same time (sometimes the same action
from slightly different perspectives, sometimes similar actions at
different times). This can convey the excitement and frenzy of certain
activities, but it can also overload the viewer.
Stock shot. Footage already available and used for another
purpose than the one for which it was originally filmed.
Invisible editing: See narrative style: continuity editing.
Subjective time. The time experienced or felt by a character in
a film, as revealed through camera movement and editing (e.g. when a
frightened person's flight from danger is prolonged).
Compressed time. The compression of time between sequences or
scenes, and within scenes. This is the most frequent manipulation of time
in films: it is achieved with cuts or dissolves. In a dramatic narative,
if climbing a staircase is not a significant part of the plot, a shot of a
character starting up the stairs may then cut to him entering a room. The
logic of the situation and our past experience of medium tells us that the
room is somewhere at the top of the stairs. Long journeys can be
compressed into seconds. Time may also be compressed between cutaways in
parallel editing. More subtle compression can occur after reaction shots
or close-ups have intervened. The use of dissolves was once a cue for the
passage of a relatively long period of time.
Long take. A single shot (or take, or run of the camera) which
lasts for a relatively lengthy period of time. The long take has an
'authentic' feel since it is not inherently dramatic.
Simultaneous time. Events in different places can be presented
as occurring at the same moment, by parallel editing or cross-cutting, by
multiple images or split-screen. The conventional clue to indicate that
events or shots are taking place at the same time is that there is no
progression of shots: shots are either inserted into the main action or
alternated with each other until the strands are somehow united.
Slow motion. Action which takes place on the screen at a slower
rate than the rate at which the action took place before the camera. This
is used: a) to make a fast action visible; b) to make a familiar action
strange; c) to emphasise a dramatic moment. It can have a lyric and
romantic quality or it can amplify violence.
Accelerated motion (undercranking) . This is used: a) to make a
slow action visible; b) to make a familiar action funny; c) to increase
the thrill of speed.
Reverse motion. Reproducing action backwards, for comic, magical
or explanatory effect.
Replay. An action sequence repeated, often in slow motion,
commonly featured in the filming of sport to review a significant event.
Freeze-frame. This gives the image the appearance of a still
photograph. Clearly not a naturalistic device.
Flashback. A break in the chronology of a narrative in which
events from the past are disclosed to the viewer. Formerly indicated
conventionally with defocus or ripple dissolves.
Flashforward. Much less common than the flashback. Not normally
associated with a particular character. Associated with objective
treatments.
Extended or expanded time/overlapping action. The expansion of
time can be accomplished by intercutting a series of shots, or by filming
the action from different angles and editing them together. Part of an
action may be repeated from another viewpoint, e.g. a character is shown
from the inside of a building opening a door and the next shot, from the
outside, shows him opening it again. Used nakedly this device disrupts the
audience's sense of real time. The technique may be used unobtrusively to
stretch time, perhaps to exaggerate, for dramatic effect, the time taken
to walk down a corridor. Sometimes combined with slow motion.
Ambiguous time. Within the context of a well-defined time-scheme
sequences may occur which are ambiguous in time. This is most frequently
comunicated through dissolves and superimpositions.
Universal time. This is deliberately created to suggest
universal relevance. Ideas rather than examples are emphasised. Context
may be disrupted by frequent cuts and by the extensive use of close-ups
and other shots which do not reveal a specific background.
Studio sound. Sound recorded in the studio to improve the sound
quality, eliminating unwanted background noise ('ambient sound'), e.g.
dubbed dialogue. This may be then mixed with live environmental sound.
Selective sound. The removal of some sounds and the retention of
others to make significant sounds more recognizable, or for dramatic
effect - to create atmosphere, meaning and emotional nuance. Selective
sound (and amplification) may make us aware of a watch or a bomb ticking.
This can sometimes be a subjective device, leading us to identify with a
character: to hear what he or she hears. Sound may be so selective that
the lack of ambient sound can make it seem artificial or expressionistic.
Sound perspective/aural perspective. The impression of distance
in sound, usually created through the use of selective sound. Note that
even in live television a microphone is deliberately positioned, just as
the camera is, and therefore may privilege certain participants.
Sound bridge. Adding to continuity through sound, by running
sound (narration, dialogue or music) from one shot across a cut to another
shot to make the action seem uninterrupted.
Dubbed dialogue. Post-recording the voice-track in the studio,
the actors matching their words to the on-screen lip movements. Not
confined to foreign-language dubbing.
Wildtrack (asynchronous sound). Sound which was self-evidently
recorded separately from the visuals with which it is shown. For example,
a studio voice-over added to a visual sequence later.
Parallel (synchronous) sound. Sound 'caused' by some event on
screen, and which matches the action.
Commentary/voice-over narration. Commentary spoken off-screen
over the shots shown. The voice-over can be used to:
The commentary confers authority on a particular interpretation,
particularly if the tone is moderate, assured and reasoned. In dramatic
films, it may be the voice of one of the characters, unheard by the
others.
Sound effects (SFX). Any sound from any source other than
synchronised dialogue, narration or music. Dubbed-in sound effects can add
to the illusion of reality: a stage- set door may gain from the addition
of the sound of a heavy door slamming or creaking.
Music. Music helps to establish a sense of the pace of the
accompanying scene. The rhythm of music usually dictates the rhythm of the
cuts. The emotional colouring of the music also reinforces the mood of the
scene. Background music is asynchronous music which accompanies a film. It
is not normally intended to be noticeable. Conventionally, background
music accelerates for a chase sequence, becomes louder to underscore a
dramatically important action. Through repetition it can also link shots,
scenes and sequences. Foreground music is often synchronous music which
finds its source within the screen events (e.g. from a radio, TV, stereo
or musicians in the scene). It may be a more credible and dramatically
plausible way of bringing music into a programme than background music (a
string orchestra sometimes seems bizarre in a Western).
Silence. The juxtaposition of an image and silence can frustrate
expectations, provoke odd, self-conscious responses, intensify our
attention, make us apprehensive, or make us feel dissociated from reality.
Backlighting. A romantic heroine is often backlit to create a
halo effect on her hair.
Graphics. Maps, graphs and diagrams are associated primarily
with news, documentary and educational programmes.
Animation. Creating an illusion of movement, by inter-cutting
stills, using graphics with movable sections, using step-by-step changes,
or control wire activation.
Objective treatment. The 'objective point of view' involves
treating the viewer as an observer. A major example is the 'privileged
point of view' which involves watching from omniscient vantage points.
Keeping the camera still whilst the subject moves towards or away from it
is an objective camera effect.
Parallel development/parallel editing/cross-cutting. An intercut
sequence of shots in which the camera shifts back and forth between one
scene and another. Two distinct but related events seem to be happening at
approximately the same time. A chase is a good example. Each scene serves
as a cutaway for the other. Adds tension and excitement to dramatic
action.
'Invisible editing'. This is the omniscient style of the realist
feature films developed in Hollywood. The vast majority of narrative films
are now edited in this way. The cuts are intended to be unobtrusive except
for special dramatic shots. It supports rather than dominates the
narrative: the story and the behaviour of its characters are the centre of
attention. The technique gives the impression that the edits are always
required are motivated by the events in the 'reality' that the camera is
recording rather than the result of a desire to tell a story in a
particular way. The 'seamlessness' convinces us of its 'realism', but its
devices include:
The editing isn't really 'invisible', but the conventions have become
so familiar to visual literates that they no longer consciously notice
them.
Mise-en-scene. (Contrast montage). 'Realistic' technique
whereby meaning is conveyed through the relationship of things visible
within a single shot (rather than, as with montage, the relationship
between shots). An attempt is preserve space and time as much as possible;
editing or fragmenting of scenes is minimised. Composition is therefore
extremely important. The way people stand and move in relation to each
other is important. Long shots and long takes are characteristic.
Montage/montage editing. In its broadest meaning, the process of
cutting up film and editing it into the screened sequence. However, it may
also be used to mean intellectual montage - the justaposition of short
shots to represent action or ideas - or (especially in Hollywood), simply
cutting between shots to condense a series of events. Intellectual montage
is used to consciously convey subjective messages through the
juxtaposition of shots which are related in composition or movement,
through repetition of images, through cutting rhythm, detail or metaphor.
Montage editing, unlike invisible editing, uses conspicuous techniques
which may include: use of close- ups, relatively frequent cuts, dissolves,
superimposition, fades and jump cuts. Such editing should suggest a
particular meaning.
Talk to camera. The sight of a person looking ('full face') and
talking directly at the camera establishes their authority or 'expert'
status with the audience. Only certain people are normally allowed to do
this, such as announcers, presenters, newsreaders, weather forecasters,
interviewers, anchor-persons, and, on special occasions (e.g. ministerial
broadcasts), key public figures. The words of 'ordinary' people are
normally mediated by an interviewer. In a play or film talking to camera
clearly breaks out of naturalistic conventions (the speaker may seem like
an obtrusive narrator). A short sequence of this kind in a 'factual'
programme is called a 'piece to camera'.
Tone. The mood or atmosphere of a programme (e.g. ironic, comic,
nostalgic, romantic).
Scene. A dramatic unit composed of a single or several shots. A
scene usually takes place in a continuous time period, in the same
setting, and involves the same characters.
Sequence. A dramatic unit composed of several scenes, all linked
together by their emotional and narrative momentum.
Genre.
Broad category of television or film programme. Genres include: soap
operas, documentaries, game shows, 'cop shows' (police dramas), news
programmes, 'chat' shows, phone-ins and sitcoms (situation comedies).
Series. A succession of programmes with a standard format.
Serial. An ongoing story in which each episode takes up where
the last one left off. Soap operas are serials.
Talking heads. In some science programmes extensive use is made
of interviews with a succession of specialists/ experts (the interviewer's
questions having been edited out). This derogatively referred to as
'talking heads'. Speakers are sometimes allowed to talk to camera. The
various interviews are sometimes cut together as if it were a debate,
although the speakers are rarely in direct conversation.
Vox pop. Short for 'vox populi', Latin for 'voice of the
people'. The same question is put to a range of people to give a flavour
of 'what ordinary people think' about some issue. Answers are selected and
edited together to achieve a rapid-fire stream of opinions.
Intertextuality. Intertextuality refers to relationships between
different elements of a medium (e.g. formats and participants), and links
with other media. One aspect of intertextuality is that programme
participants who are known to the audience from other programmes bring
with them images established in other contexts which effect the audience's
perception of their current role. Another concerns issues arising from
sandwiching advertisements between programmes on commercial television
(young children, in particular, may make no clear distinction between
them).
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Camera Techniques: Movement
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Editing Techniques
Cut. Sudden change of shot from one
viewpoint or location to another. On television cuts occur on average
about every 7 or 8 seconds. Cutting may:
Manipulating Time
Screen time: a period of time represented
by events within a film (e.g. a day, a week).
Use of Sound
Direct sound. Live sound. This may have a
sense of freshness, spontaneity and 'authentic' atmosphere, but it may not
be acoustically ideal.
Lighting
Soft and harsh lighting. Soft and harsh lighting
can manipulate a viewer's attitude towards a setting or a character. The
way light is used can make objects, people and environments look beautiful
or ugly, soft or harsh, artificial or real. Light may be used expressively
or realitically.
Graphics
Text. Titles appear at or near the start of the
programme. Their style - typeface, size, colour, background and pace -
(together with music) can establish expectations about the atmosphere and
style of the programme. Credits listing the main actors, the director, and
so on, are normally shown at or near the beginning, whilst those listing
the rest of the actors and programme makers are normally shown at the end.
Some American narrative series begin with a lengthy pre-credit sequence.
Credits are frequently superimposed on action or stills, and may be shown
as a sequence of frames or scrolled up the screen. Captions are commonly
used in news and documentaries to identify speakers, in documentaries,
documentary dramas and dramatic naratives to indicate dates or locations.
Subtitles at the bottom of the screen are usually used for translation or
for the benefit of the hearing-impaired.
Narrative style
Subjective treatment. The camera treatment
is called 'subjective' when the viewer is treated as a participant (e.g.
when the camera is addressed directly or when it imitates the viewpoint or
movement of a character). We may be shown not only what a character sees,
but how he or she sees it. A temporary 'first-person' use of camera as the
character can be effective in conveying unusual states of mind or powerful
experiences, such as dreaming, remembering, or moving very fast. If
overused, it can draw too much attention to the camera. Moving the camera
(or zooming) is a subjective camera effect, especially if the movement is
not gradual or smooth.
Formats and other features
Shot. A single run of the camera
or the piece of film resulting from such a run.
Further Reading
UWA 1994